................................................................................................................................................. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................... ix INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND...........................................................................................................................2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY .............................................................................................................................3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...............................................................................................................................4 RESEARCH METHODS..................................................................................................................................4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY .....................................................................................................................5 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ...................................................................................................................6 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ..............................................................................7 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION: DEFINITIONS AND GOALS ..........................................................................7 ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING OUTCOMES IN THE BROADER EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT .............................11 RESEARCH ON LEARNING IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION.....................................................................14 EE-specific Outcomes .........................................................................................................................14 Generic EE Outcomes .........................................................................................................................20 Academic Achievement.................................................................................................................................. 22 Critical Thinking ............................................................................................................................................ 28 Self-esteem ..................................................................................................................................................... 30 Engagement and Motivation........................................................................................................................... 32 CLOSING REMARKS...................................................................................................................................33 METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................................................35 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN WASHINGTON STATE ...........................................................................35 History of Environmental Education in Washington State..................................................................35 Washington State Definitions and Frameworks of Environmental Education ....................................38 Environmental Education in Washington State Schools: the Reality ..................................................41 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ..........................................................................................................................43 THE SETTING: SCHOOL AND SCHOOL DISTRICT DESCRIPTION ..................................................................44 School District.....................................................................................................................................44 The School...........................................................................................................................................45 STUDY PARTICIPANTS ...............................................................................................................................46 Students ...............................................................................................................................................46 Teachers ..............................................................................................................................................49 PROGRAM DESCRIPTIONS..........................................................................................................................50 The Environmental Action Program....................................................................................................50 The Inquiry 10 Program ......................................................................................................................61 Comparison of Features in EAP and Inquiry 10..................................................................................62 RESEARCH APPROACH ..............................................................................................................................65 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION .............................................................................................................69 Quantitative data collection.................................................................................................................71 WASL Tests ................................................................................................................................................... 71 Grade Point Averages ..................................................................................................................................... 71 Science Inquiry Tasks..................................................................................................................................... 72 Science Inquiry Tasks: Reliability and Validly Analyses.......................................................................... 73 Student Attitudes Survey ................................................................................................................................ 78