................................................................................................................................. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENT .................................. ................................................................................. vii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... x Figures ........................................... ................................................................................................. x Map ........................................................................................................................................... x Pictures ..................................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................ ........................................................................... 1 1.1 Theoretical approaches to migration in social s cience ............................................................ 1 1.2 Migration in the context of the Hindu-Kush Hima laya ............................................................ 2 1.3 Research questions ............................ ....................................................................................... 4 1.4 Structure of the thesis ....................... ........................................................................................ 5 CHAPTER 2: ASTAM IN CONTEXT .......................................................................................... 6 2.1 Nepal ......................................... ............................................................................................... 6 2.1.1 Challenges of poverty and food insecurity ... .... .............................................................. 7 2.1.2 The caste system ............................ .................................................................................... 7 2.1.3 Political history ............................................................................................................. 8 2.2 Kaski District ................................ .......................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 The Seti-Mardi River Valley ...................................................................................... 10 2.2.2 Annapurna Conservation Area ................................................................................. 13 2.3 Astam ......................................... ............................................................................................ 14 2.3.1 Governmental administration ................. ......................................................................... 15 2.3.2 Social structure .......................................................................................................... 15 2.3.3 The livelihoods of households in Astam ...... ................................................................... 17 2.3.4 Infrastructure and facilities ............... ............................................................................... 18 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS .............................................................. 21 3.1 Quantitative and qualitative methods .............................................................................. 21 3.2 Cross-cultural research .................................................................................................... 22 3.2.1 Research in a foreign culture .................................................................................... 22 3.2.3 Cooperating with an interpreter ............. .......................................................................... 23 3.3 Fieldwork methods ........................................................................................................... 26 3.3.1 Participant observation ..................... ............................................................................... 26 3.3.2 Household survey ............................ ................................................................................ 32