.......................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................ x LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION & SYNOPSIS .............................................................................. 1 1.1: INTRODUCTION & SCOPE OF STUDY ..................................................................................... 1 1.2: DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS ....................................................................................................... 5 1.2.1: INNOVATION ............................................................................................................................. 5 1.2.2: INTERACTION ........................................................................................................................... 6 1.2.3: SPECIALISATION ...................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.4: TRADE ......................................................................................................................................... 8 1.3: AREA OF STUDY .......................................................................................................................... 9 1.4: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 10 1.5: THESIS ORGANISATION .......................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER TWO: WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE ARCHAEOLOGY &METALLURGY OF THE SOUTHERN WATERBERG? ................................................................................................ 14 2.1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 14 2.2: THE IRON AGE & CULTURE HISTORICAL SEQUENCES ................................................... 14 2.3: PRE-COLINIAL MINING: WINNING THE ORES FROM THE HOST ROCKS ..................... 17 2.4: SMELTING TECHNOLOGIES: WINNING THE METALS FROM THE ORES ..................... 24 2.5: ALLOYING: BRONZE PRODUCTION .................................................................................... .26 2.6: SMITHING, FABRICATION & CASTING ................................................................................ 27 2.7: METAL CONSUMPTION & DISTRIBUTION .......................................................................... 30 2.8: DATING & CHRONOLOGY....................................................................................................... 31 2.9: SUMMARY.................................................................. ....................................34 CHAPTER THREE: ETHNO-HISTORIES OF TRADE IN SOUTHERN AFRICADURING THE SECOND MILLENIUM AD .................................................................................................................... 35 3.1: INTRODUCTION........................ ........... ............................................................35 3.2: A BRIEF BACKGROUND ON LONG-DISTANCE TRADE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA... .... .36 3.3: ETHNO-HISTORIES OF TRADE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA .................. ........... ............39 3.3.1: THE TSONGA CASE STUDY............................................. ........... .......................41 Un ive rsi ty of Ca pe To wn vii | P a g e 3.3.2: THE SHONA CASE STUDY............................................. ........... .......................47 3.4: SUMMARY........................................................................... ........... ...............51 CHAPTER FOUR: THE BIO-PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SOUTHERN WATERBERG ......... ...52 4.1: INTRODUCTION................................................................................. ........... ..52 4.2: GEOLOGY........................................................................... ........... ................54 4.3: TOPOGRAPHY.................................................................. ........... ...................57 4.4: DRAINAGE........................................................................ .......... ..................58 4.5: SOILS................................................................................. ........... ................58 4.6: VEGETATION COVER......................................................... ........... ..................59 4.7: CLIMATE........................................................................... ........... .................60 4.8: SUMMARY: OPPORTUNITIES & CONSTRAINTS..................... ............ ....................60 CHAPTER FIVE: FIELD METHODS & DATA COLLECTION............ ... ...........................62 5.1: INTRODUCTION.............................................................................. ........... ......62 5.2: DESKTOP SURVEYS.............................................................................. ........... 62 5.3: FINDING SITES: SAMPLING & SURVEY STRATEGIES.......................................... ...63 5.4: DIGGING SITES: EXCAVATION STRATEGIES.............................. ........... ...............69 5.4.1: RHENOSTERKLOOF 1: SITE DESCRIPTION & EXCAVATIONS...... ........... ..............70 5.4.2: RHENOSTERKLOOF 2: SITE DESCRIPTION & EXCAVATIONS......... ........... ...........80 5.4.3: RHENOSTERKLOOF 3: SITE DESCRIPTION & EXCAVATIONS............ ........... ........82 5.4.4: TEMBI 1: SITE DESCRIPTION & EXCAVATIONS.............................. ........... .........86 5.5: RADIOCARBON DATING OF SITES................................................... ........... .......91 5.6: SUMMARY.................................................................................... ........... ......92 CHAPTER SIX: LABORATORY METHODS: PRINCIPLES & PROTOCOLS...... .. ..............93 6.1: INTRODUCTION........................................................................... ........... ........93 6.2: MATERIAL CULTURE & GROUP IDENTITY.............................. ........... ..................93 6.3: ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACHES.......................................... ............ ................96 6.3.1: CERAMIC TYPOLOGY...................................................... ............ ...................96 6.3.2: BEAD TYPOLOGY..................................................................... ............. ..........97 6.4: WHEN THE ARCHAEOLOGY MEETS METALLURGY: THIN-SECTION PETROGRAPHY OF CRUCIBLES & DECORATED SHERDS................................................................... ........98 6.5: ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL APPROACHES.............................. ............ ................99 6.5.1: BULK CHEMICAL ANALYSIS BY WD-XRF........................... .......... ....................103 6.5.2: MICROSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS BY OM.............................. .......... .....................104 Un ive rsi ty of Ca pe To wn viii | P a g e 6.5.3: MICROSTRUCTURE & CHEMICAL ANALYSIS BY SEM-EDS...... .......... ..................105 6.6: SUMMARY........................................................................ ........... .................106 CHAPTER SEVEN: ANALYTICAL RESULTS: CERAMICS & OTHER NONMETALLURGICAL FINDS......................................................... .............................107 7.1: INTRODUCTION......................................................... ........... ........................107 7.2: BEAD TYPOLOGY...................................................... ........... .........................109 7.2.1: GLASS BEADS: RHENOSTERKLOOF 1........................ .......... ...........................109 7.2.2: SHELL BEADS: RHENOSTERKLOOF 1.............................. ........... .....................111 7.2.3: SHELL BEADS: TEMBI 1................................................ .......... ......................114 7.2.4: BONE BEADS: RHENOSTERKLOOF 1................................. .......... .....................115 7.3: CERAMIC TYPOLOGY...................................................... .......... .....................116 7.3.1: RHENOSTERKLOOF 1......................................................... .......... ...............117 7.3.2: RHENOSTERKLOOF 2........................................................ .......... ...................121 7.3.3: RHENOSTERKLOOF 3...................................................... .......... ..................121 7.3.4: RHENOSTERKLOOF 4-8.................................................... ........... ..................124 7.3.5: TEMBI 1......................................................................... ........... ..................126 7.4: COMPARING CERAMIC TECHNOLOGICAL STYLES BETWEENCRUCIBLE SHERDS & DECORATED EILAND CERAMICS.................................... ............................... .............129 7.5: SUMMARY..................................................................... ........... ....................131 CHAPTER EIGHT: ARCHAEOMETALLURGICALSTUDIES............ . ...........................133 8.1: INTRODUCTION.................................................................. .......... ................133 8.2: BRONZE PRODUCTION...................................................... .......... ..................134 8.3: COPPER PRODUCTION...................................................... .......... ...................140 8.4: TIN PRODUCTION........................................................ .......... ..................