Magdalis barbicornis
National Institutes of Health
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.................................................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1 General Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 SEXUAL SELECTION AND WEAPON EVOLUTION .................................................... 2 1.2 WEAPON ALLOMETRY .................................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 Analysis of allometric data ............................................................................................ 7 1.2.2 Variation in weapon allometry ....................................................................................... 9 1.3 ALTERNATIVE REPRODUCTIVE TACTICS ................................................................ 10 1.3.1 ARTs in insects ............................................................................................................ 12 1.3.2 Sneaking versus fighting as ARTs ............................................................................... 13 1.4 FIGHTING AND ASSESSMENT STRATEGY................................................................ 14 1.5 THE BRENTIDAE ............................................................................................................. 16 1.6 THE NEW ZEALAND GIRAFFE WEEVIL ..................................................................... 17 1.7 THESIS OUTLINE ............................................................................................................. 20 1.8 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER 2 Sexual size dimorphism and sex ratio of the New Zealand giraffe weevil (Lasiorhynchus barbicornis) ......................................................................................................... 35 2.1 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 36 2.2 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 37 2.3 METHODS ......................................................................................................................... 43 2.3.1 Study species and site .................................................................................................. 43 2.3.2 Field methods ............................................................................................................... 45 2.3.3 Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................ 49 2.4 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................... 50 2.4.1 Seasonal changes in abundance and sex ratio .............................................................. 50 2.5 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 58 2.6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 63 CHAPTER 3 Exaggerated trait allometry, compensation and trade-offs in the New Zealand giraffe weevil (Lasiorhynchus barbicornis) ................................................................................. 71 3.1 ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ 72 3.2 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 73 3.3 METHODS ......................................................................................................................... 78 3.3.1 Field sampling and morphological measurements ....................................................... 78 3.3.2 Trait trade-offs and compensation ............................................................................... 80 3.3.3 Statistical analysis ........................................................................................................ 82 3.4 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................... 84 3.4.1 Shape and slope of scaling relationship ....................................................................... 84 3.4.2 Trade-offs and compensation ....................................................................................... 91 3.5 DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................... 91 3.5.1 Shape of scaling relationship ....................................................................................... 91 3.5.2 Trade-offs and compensation ....................................................................................... 94 3.6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 99 CHAPTER 4 Alternative reproductive tactics in the New Zealand giraffe weevil (Lasiorhynchus barbicornis)................................................................................................................................. 107 4.1 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... 108 4.2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 109 4.3 METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 113 4.3.1 Study site .................................................................................................................... 113 4.3.2 Observational experiments......................................................................................... 113 4.3.3 Statistical analysis ...................................................................................................... 114 4.4 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 117 4.4.1 General mating behaviour .......................................................................................... 117 4.4.2 Alternative Reproductive Tactics .............................................................................. 119 4.4.3 Small male decision making ...................................................................................... 122 4.4.4. Mating success across body sizes ............................................................................. 124 4.4.5 Evidence for sexual selection ..................................................................................... 125 4.5 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 126 4.6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 136 CHAPTER 5 Fighting behaviour and the competitive assessment strategy of male giraffe weevils ..................................................................................................................................................... 145 5.1 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... 146 5.2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 147 5.3 METHODS ....................................................................................................................... 152 5.3.1 Study site and population ........................................................................................... 152 5.3.2 Field observations ...................................................................................................... 153 5.3.3 Statistical analysis ...................................................................................................... 154 5.4 RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 157 5.4.1 Description of fighting behaviour .............................................................................. 157 5.4.2 Fight duration and intensity ....................................................................................... 160 5.4.3 Size-related fighting success ...................................................................................... 161 5.4.4 Assessment strategy ................................................................................................... 163 5.5 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 168 5.6 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 174 CHAPTER 6 Geographic variation in body size and weapon allometry along a latitudinal cline ..................................................................................................................................................... 181 6.1 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... 182 6.2 INTRODUCTION ........................
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