• DOI:10.1023/A:1018598708346
• Corpus ID: 31157829

A Paradigm Shift

@article{Mcdonnell2005APS,
  title={A Paradigm Shift},
  author={Mark J. Mcdonnell},
  journal={Urban Ecosystems},
  year={2005},
  volume={1},
  pages={85-86}
}

• M. Mcdonnell
• Published 1 June 1997
• Environmental Science
• Urban Ecosystems

From a scientific perspective, urban and suburban landscapes have been understudied and underutilized by ecologists throughout the world. The reasons for this are many, but the primary underlying cause can be attributed to the reluctance of ecologists to work in areas dominated by humans. Historically, ecological training has involved addressing ecological questions in the most “natural” context, i.e., without humans. This was facilitated by the classical “equilibrium paradigm” that maintained ecological systems were closed systems in steady-state and that change was driven by the endpoint. Disturbances were also not considered important to the integrity or sustainability of the system. Influenced by the lack of field verification of this paradigm, ecologists have recently proposed a new “nonequilibrium paradigm” that maintains ecological systems are open and have multiple persistent states and multiple pathways of change that are driven by process. This new paradigm also recognizes the importance of disturbances such as fire, floods, and hurricanes in determining ecosystem structure. Human activities produce a wide range and magnitude of disturbances which are legitimate topics of ecological study. Ecologists, especially in North America, have historically focused their research on “natural” systems and thus, the foundations of our understanding of ecological systems come primarily from areas with low human activity. With the numerous discoveries over the past 20 years of the extent of human impacts on the globe, this “natural state” is more of an ideal than a reality. The earth today provides ecologists the opportunity and challenge to address ecological questions in a variety of environments with varying levels of human activities. The pioneering research in urban and suburban environments by C. Adams, R. Dorney, and F. Stearns in North America, R. Bornkamm, A. Darlington, K. Grodzinska, and H. Sukopp in Europe, and M. Numata in Japan, to name a few, clearly demonstrates the efficacy and importance of conducting ecological research in areas with relatively high levels of human activity. With current estimates stating that by the year 2000 over 50% of the world’s human population will reside in urban areas, it is scientifically germane and socially imperative that ecologists apply their expertise to addressing both basic ecological questions and environmental problems in urban and suburban landscapes. Our current level of ecological understanding is inadequate to foretell the potential effects of increased human population density and its associated landscape modification and energy consumption on populations, communities, and ecosystems in urban and suburban landscapes. This general lack of information severely hampers the development of integrated management strategies, mitigation efforts, and conservation policy. Ecologists have the theoretical foundations and tools to study cities as ecosystems or in smaller components at the population and community levels. Because of the social, physical and ecological complexity of cities, such study requires a diverse multi-disciplinary effort. Studies of this nature will no doubt be accomplished in the near future, especially with the new funding efforts of the U.S. National Science Foundation. On the other hand, small groups of ecologists are especially well trained and familiar with studying natural areas such as woodlands, wetlands, and rivers within urban and suburban landscapes. There is a wealth of ecologically interesting questions that could be addressed in urban and suburban landscapes related to a diversity of subdisciplines. Some of these would include questions related to: 1) physiological responses of plants and animals to urban environments; 2) the influence of moderate to high levels of air, water, and soil pollution on productivity and nutrient cycling; 3) the structure and function of small (<1 ha) and medium sized ecosystems; 4) truncated food webs; 5) edge effects; 6) biodiversity; 7) genetic isolation; 8) landscape fragmentation; 9) the role of moderate to Urban Ecosystems, 1997,1, 85–86